Fake reviews on online platforms: perspectives from the US, UK and EU legislations.

User-generated online reviews have become essential sources of information for potential consumers. Given the increasing importance of online reviews on consumer purchases, some traders try to publish or promote fake reviews on online platforms to improve the reputation of their goods or services, or to damage the reputation of their competitors. This paper aims (1) to analyse whether and how fake reviews violate the main legal and ethical principles of advertising, according to the legislations of the US, UK and EU as well as the International Advertising and Marketing Communications Code; (2) to assess how the EU, the UK and the US are dealing with them, and find out which approaches and actions are working best; and (3) to offer normative recommendations for effective prosecution of fake reviews. The paper uses a combination of theoretical and sociological approaches (section 1), black letter analysis of law (sections 2 and 3) and a comparative approach (sections 2 and 3). Among others, the article observes (1) that fake reviews are a form of illegal advertising and (2) that the European regulatory instruments provide more protection against fake reviews than the US and argues (3) that an effective fight against fake reviews requires strong administrative bodies, endowed with sufficient resources.

"Better Not to Know?": Justifiable Limits on the Right to Information in the Realm of DTC Genetic Testing. An Analysis of the European and Spanish Legal Framework.

The rapid advance of genetics increases the availability in the market of different genetic tests, which can be acquired directly by consumers without the intermediation of a healthcare professional. Both the European and the Spanish legal framework have restricted the access to these direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic tests on the grounds of different reasons, such as the protection of consumers or the preservation of public health. The present article discusses these legal restrictions under the light of the right to information.

La hipertrofia del principio de autonomía en el debate bioético / The hypertrophy of autonomy in the bioethical debate

En el actual debate bioético se recurre frecuentemente al argumento de la autonomía personal para justificar la legalización de nuevas opciones para el sujeto, como la maternidad subrogada, la venta de órganos, la eutanasia o la congelación de gametos para posponer la paternidad. El presente artículo trata de mostrar cómo legalizar determinadas opciones puede resultar perjudicial para las personas afectadas, así como justificar y perpetuar situaciones de dominio de unos seres humanos sobre otros. En este sentido, se subraya la importancia de reconocer la indisponibilidad de determinados bienes y derechos humanos

In the current bioethical debate personal autonomy is frequently used as an argument to justify the legalization of new options for the subject. This is the case, for instance, of the controversies around surrogated motherhood, organ free market, euthanasia or egg freezing in order to postpone motherhood. This paper aims to show how legalizing certain options can be harmful to people, and would justify and perpetuate situations of domination of some human beings over others. In this regard, the importance of recognizing the unavailability of certain goods and human rights is underlined

[The Hypertrophy of Autonomy in the Bioethical Debate]. / La Hipertrofia del Principio de Autonomía en el Debate Bioético.

In the current bioethical debate personal autonomy is frequently used as an argument to justify the legalization of new options for the subject. This is the case, for instance, of the controversies around surrogated motherhood, organ free market, euthanasia or egg freezing in order to postpone motherhood. This paper aims to show how legalizing certain options can be harmful to people, and would justify and perpetuate situations of domination of some human beings over others. In this regard, the importance of recognizing the unavailability of certain goods and human rights is underlined.

Commercial speech in the realm of direct-to- consumer genetic testing. Are the current bans in the Spanish legal framework necessary and proportionate?

This paper explores the right to commercial speech of the companies that offer Direct To Consumer (DTC) genetic tests in the market. The paper discusses whether the bans to commercial speech currently in force in Spain are necessary and proportional or not, attending to the rights and public interests they try to protect, and balancing them with the communicative rights of the companies and the customers

El presente artículo analiza el derecho a la comunicación publicitaria de las empresas que ofrecen test directos al consumidor. Tras un análisis de la normativa vigente en España, se plantea la necesidad y proporcionalidad de las restricciones que el ordenamiento español impone a este tipo de publicidad, ponderando los intereses en conflicto: de un lado, el derecho a la comunicación de las empresas y los potenciales clientes de otro, la protección de la salud pública y de los consumidores y usuarios

[Patients' autonomy and right to the information: from the recognition of rights, to the loss of confidence. Reflections on the new regulation about patients' rights at the end of life]. / Autonomía e información de los pacientes: del reconocimiento de derechos a la pérdida de confianza. reflexiones con motivo de la aparición de nuevas normas sobre los derechos de los pacientes al final de la vida.

This paper analyses the evolution of physician-patient relationship in the last decades, and the way in which the law influences in it through the regulation of the patient's rights. It underlines the importance of defend patient's autonomy, and, at the same time, alerts to the risks of the widespread of the defensive healthcare.

[Conscientious objection of health personnel in the recent Organic Law 2/2010, about sexual and reproductive health and voluntary interruption of pregnancy]. / La objeción de conciencia del personal sanitario en la nueva Ley Orgánica 2/2010, de salud sexual y reproductiva y de la interrupción voluntaria del embarazo.

The main goal of the paper is to analyse and evaluate the recent Organic Law 2/2010, and its prescriptions referring to the conscientious objection of health personnel in relation to the voluntary interruption of pregnancy. The paper starts studying conscientious objection: its raison d'être, its delimitation, its recognition by the Spanish regulation. Further on, the paper focuses on the article 19.2° of the Organic Law 2/2010, underlining on the one hand the positive aspects (such as the formal requirements for the objection), and on the other hand the negative ones (such as suspicion over objectors).